People

Tacitus has one message: look beneath the surface.

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It is no secret that the Annals written by Tacitus were at least to some extent a criticism of the new regime that was instituted by Augustus, this is clear from the first chapters of the first book of the Annals. The characterisation of the other books of the Annals, which are not to be covered by this essay, demonstrate this even more, an effect greatly emphasised and achieved through the use of negative characterisation of the emperors and their acts. However, it is clear that one of his main messages is that to look under the surface of the change in government that has occurred with the beginning of the Principate and the rise of the Empire. This may be because the wool was being pulled over the eyes of the people as to the true nature of what the new government was. Nevertheless, it is not possible to consider this his only message within the Annals. Another one is that it is necessary to distrust power and especially people with power. The reasons for this are varied within Tacitus’ Annals and clear to such an extent that it could be considered as the main message in the first book of the Annals. A further possible message that Tacitus could be trying to convey in this first book is that history is a cycle, and that it will repeat itself and that it is necessary to heed history’s advice.

The idea that Tacitus’s writings have a hidden message which takes the form of looking beneath the surface of whatever version of the facts that people were presented with. The first evidence which suggests this is at the very beginning of the first book of the Annals, when he mentions that the histories of other emperors were “ob metum falsae”, or falsified through fear. Immediately he brings it to the readers’ and audience’s attention that whatever is written in history may not ostentatiously be the truth and therefore refers not only to other writings, but also to his own. By doing so, he may be alluding, straight away that in his writings there is a message which permeates throughout that is much deeper and much more significant than that which can be understood from the first reading. Continuing with the theme of how Tacitus aims to add layers to his narrative at the beginning of the Annals by directly telling the audience that Augustus’ rise to power was not as righteous as he attempted to portray. He first states that Augustus bought “militem donis, populum annona, cunctos delcedine otii” and in the chapter that follows declares that the only reason for promoting his relatives to powerful positions within government, for his “subsidia dominationi”. The message here is to look beneath the surface of the version of events that has been around since the death of the Augustus. It is suggesting that the events recalled in the RGDA are only a veil which has been drawn across in order to perceive the ‘republica restituta’ was only a title rather than a reality. This becomes even more evident in the beginning of chapter ten when it seems to be a direct comparison to the RGDA. Furthermore, Tacitus uses a speech and the soldiers react to it in order to further highlight the need to look below the surface, this is most clear with the phrase “sensit miles in tempus conficta”. Therefore, it is clear that while this is a very clear message that Tacitus is trying to convey in the Annals, it is not the only one.

Another message that it is possible to consider that Tacitus is trying to convey is that it is necessary to distrust power and especially people in power which ties in closely with the need to look beneath the surface. Tacitus puts emphasis on the fact that Augustus promoted “sororis filium” to very high office. The subtle message here is that there is a need to distrust the powerful, even an emperor, because of the corruption and favouritism which is rife within the powerful. This theme carries on when he mentions that “higher a man’s rank, more eager his hypocrisy” which again serves the purpose to show how it is necessary not to believe everything that the powerful say and do, because the line between the truth and lies is too blurred to be trusted. There seems to be more power to this argument because he seems to talk about all sorts of different types of power, relating it to both the ultimate power that  was the emperor but also about less powerful people, as just has been mentioned, like the senators and equites who have managed to gain money and influence.  The argument seems to be that power of any sort cannot be trusted straight away. Tacitus reinforces the point that power is to be distrusted because he quotes people as saying “filial duty and State necessity were just assumed as a mask.” While this does link to the fact that it was necessary to look beneath the surface to find the true meaning and purpose behind the actions of others, it more importantly relates to the fact the assumption of power by a single man, is to be distrusted because there is no way of knowing how he will act now that he has so much power, people must be wary of such individuals. Considering the precedent that was set with Sulla, Pompey, Caesar and other dictators or generals beforehand, it makes sense that Tacitus wants to accentuate the importance of the repetition of history. The range of power that Tacitus believes is necessary to distrust is further extened with attacks against the Senate who according to him “stooped to the most abject supplication” and “multa partum et in Augustam adulation”. By emphasising that the Senate could also act in such a sycophantic way, Tacitus demonstrates how even power has checks and can be as easily influenced as a group, just like an individual can. The argument is strengthened by the fact that this should not happen to the Senate, the ultimate sign of legislative power. The argument that Tacitus’ message is that one must distrust power s very strong because t is present throughout the book and takes many different forms, this may look like the strongest argument but there is still one more which has to be looked at.

The final message that Tacitus may be trying to advocate for is that history is a cycle and the events from  the past are the key to understanding events in the present or in the future. This is most clear when talking about succession and the events that immediately follow the ascension of a new emperor. First there are the murders of possible pretenders to the imperial purple, “primum facinus novi principatus fuit Postumi Agrippae caedes”; then came the huge largesses “quadringenties tricies quinquies” to the people of Rome; there was the possibility of military revolt, such as the one in Pannonia which he puts down to “nullis novis causis nisi quod mutatus princeps”. This is a pattern which can be traced from the first emperor to feature chrconologocallly in his writing, right up until the time when Tacitus was writing, with the fall of Trajan and the rise of Hadrian. There were more or less the same events accompanying the ascension of each new emperor. The audience reading this history would have recognised this pattern as being true, and would have subsequently taken any repetitive event as being a sign as to how events would play out in the future. This can be seen when Tacitus writes about the reasons for the hampering of Roman progress which essentially he puts down to problems of not being able to adapt to and deal with the foreign terrain that could be found in Germany. These problems never resolved themselves and constantly in non central Mediterranean climates, the Roman legions were hampered by unfamiliar climates and territories, most evidently in the Near East and on the Danube. By highlighting the shortcomings of the Roman army, he emphasises the repetition of history because he is indirectly accentuating the problems that would be tricky to solve in the present when he was writing and in the future of Rome as a whole. Repetition and precedent is further developed when Tacitus writes about “secuti exemplum veteran”. This is not an isolated use of the word for example, showing that there was always a clear and distinct reason for the way that people acted. However, this argument is weaker than the others that Tacitus is trying to convey because he himself mentions that “diversum omnium quae umquam accidere civilium armorum facies” which seems to suggest that there was something different about this round of massacres of agitators. However, when he goes onto describe them, they have an eerie resemblance to the proscriptions of Sulla, Caesar and Augustus, which gives reason to doubt the sincerity of Tacitus in this case.

Overall, it is clear that Tacitus has various message within the Annals book 1, even above the three that have been discussed. It cannot be said in the slightest that Tacitus only has one message, although inflections of it permeate through the whole work. It is possible to even consider the necessity to distrust power, and more specifically the supremely powerful, as a more important and obvious message that Tacitus is attempting to convey within book 1 of the Annals.

Happiness

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“Sadness gives depth. Happiness gives height. Sadness gives roots. Happiness gives branches. Happiness is like a tree going into the sky, and sadness is like the roots going down into the womb of the earth. Both are needed, and the higher a tree goes, the deeper it goes, simultaneously. The bigger the tree, the bigger will be its roots. In fact, it is always in proportion. That’s its balance.”

–Osho-

The beauty of beauty…

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Explain how the sculptures of the 5th Century BC aspire to be lifelike, historical, aspirational and athletic

The fifth century BC saw the transition from the Archaic era in sculpture, to the Classical period, including the High Classical period. This century saw some of the greatest works of sculpture and sculptors of the ancient world. It was also the century which the use of bronze in freestanding sculpture became very common. Nevertheless, the purpose for statues remains the same and although the composition and subject of sculptures varies indefinitely, the desire for perfection always remains.

The fifth century sculptors were among the best of the Ancient world such as Polykeitos, they were always striving to give their subjects a lifelike appearance. This is hard considering the sculptor is trying to bring an inanimate medium to life. The sculptors used the proportions of the statue to give it a lifelike semblance. This is seen in the Kritios boy, of the early 5th century, has the proportions of a young adult. These correct proportions help the viewer’s mind to perceive this statue as a young boy, rather than a statue of such a person. His proportions do not allow the imagination to flow and question the boy’s age, and therefore adds to the realism of the sculpture. This is also true of later 5th century sculpture such as the Diadoumenos of around 430BC. This man is in his youth and there is no confusion in this because the proportions of his body suggest someone who is in his prime. Another point is that the detail on the sculptures in this century also add to the realism of them, exemplified in the muscle rendering and the polychromy on the Riace Warriors. The muscle tone and the anatomic perfection on the sculptures, gives them a realistic feel because you can imagine two soldiers being exactly like this. This is compounded by the fact that the younger man had more toned muscle, while ht older warrior has slightly less defined muscles. This anatomical detail allows the mind to associate the statues with what they are in reality. There seems to be the possibility that these statues could come to life at any moment. Plus, the different metals used for details such as the teeth, nipples and lips, breaks up the monotonousness of the bronze. This is a more accurate representation of what the human body is like. Also, the composition of the sculpture in the 5th century helped to augment the lifelikeness of the sculpture seen in the very natural position on which the Doryphoros is standing in. The contrapposito which the sculptor has created, perfectly represents how the human body would act and react when moved in such a way. This exalts the realism of the subject because the statue seems to have just moved into that position, and at any moment could move off again. Moreover, the lack of symmetry in the body’s movement prevents it from seeming too stilted and adds fluidity to his movement. This adds a lifelike quality to the statue.

The sculptures from the 5th century also aspire to be historical. They attempt to convey a story through this medium. However, this is especially difficult because there is a limit to the amount one can fit in a freestanding statue, and one must consider how to tell a story in a single pose. My point is that the action and composition of a statue can help the historical narrative of a statue, evident as both the Discobolos Boy and the Tyrannicides clearly tell a story. The Discobolos boy is at the top of his back swing and looks very powerful, almost noble in his action. The Tyrannicides have outstretched arms, holding swords, in a celebratory and commanding action. The pose that the Discobolos boy is unrealistic because one could not throw a discus in that manner, therefore, it is more idealistic. This is what throwing should look like. This suggests a very glorious history to the observer because this man was unique in his sport, the pentathlon and was obviously successful. One can also tell that this was probably his signature event, one in which he bested everyone else, and by not only this action, but the actual subject matter, this statue tells a story. The Tyrannicides evoke a much more tumultuous history. They do not seem as born soldiers but yet are holding swords in a powerful and glorious way. This action suggests to the viewer that they have done something in the past which has either changed affairs in a significant way, or have liberated something. They did both by removing a tyrant from Athens in 510BC and allowed the introduction of democracy. However, even a strange could recognise that there must be some great act involved because of their composition as their legs have a wide stance and their bodies are spread out. They are defending something and it gives a clear insight to Athenian history.

Accomplished by some of the subjects, and the statues were erected in their honour. The person who commissioned them wanted not only to honour their achievement, but also inspire others to do the same. Some also seem to be a template to the ideal citizen. The expression and inferred emotions of the subject inspire people to model their attitude to the one represented. The evidence is the reflective expression of the victor of the chariot race at the Pythian Games of the Charioteer of Delphi.  The viewer would expect the subject to be joyously celebrating the occasion, with his expression one of delight, not self restraint. The very stoic expression of the charioteer seems to contradict the situation and would inspire others that in victory, one should show dignity and restraint, especially when it is a personal victory. There is no other reason for the charioteer having such a reflective, pensive expression. This may also suggest that the person who commissioned the statue wanted to inspire greatness, but success should be treated like any other: with restraint. The point is that the detail on the sculptures would also be aspirational: the Riace Warriors are perfect when admiring their bodies. Their muscles are toned, but not too much to make them seem unrealistic. The perfection that they have should be what all men should want to be like. The Greek ideal was that physical beauty was also a sign of moral correctness. Therefore, these statues, with their exquisite detail (also present in the beauty of the Blonde Boy) and muscle rendering, have a subtextual message which the viewer in Ancient Greece would have understood. This is true of most adult males of this period. The physical perfectness is also a symbol of their firm morality, something which was very important. Therefore, it was empirical that the statues were ideal in their appearance, as to convey that message as well. In addition, the composition and the action of the statues is aspirational evident in that the Diadoumenos and the Doryphoros have very slight and restrained positions. Even the action of the Discobolos boy is not exuberant, but contained. This common theme represents how the Greeks believed that a good citizen should act in public. Restraint should be shown in public because that is right, it is a symbol of Greek identity and therefore the statues of the 5th century aspire to project this ideal through their actions.

The sculpture from the 5th century seeks to be athletic. The action of the statue is the most obvious way to demonstrate athleticism evidenced by the Discobolos boy. The torsion of his body emanates a kinetic energy, unseen in other sculpture, which evokes the most powerful sense of athleticism. The sheer power that this sculpture depicts is a way of portraying ultimate athleticism. There was nothing more challenging than the pentathlon and only a supreme athlete could succeed at this. This is an embodiment of this athlete and the viewer can appreciate the faultlessness of this specimen through the movement. Plus, even though it is powerful movement, it seems very fluid and natural. Intensive physical activity is second nature to this man and this is the ultimate sign of an athlete. Furthermore, the composition of sculpture helps to demonstrate athleticism presented in the gentle contrapposito of the Doryphoros. He is gently supporting himself on his spear yet his muscle definition remains and is almost emphasised by the ease with which they are displayed. For  one to be a true athlete, he should always be in peak form and by representing this man at rest, the viewer can appreciate what the ideal form of an athlete is. The statue aspires to be athletic without action which represents a different, but equally important aspect of athleticism: the rest after training or before a competition. By choosing an alternate aspect of athleticism, the sculpture has enhanced its own position as a semblance of athleticism. Additionally, the detail on a sculpture is also important if it aspires to be athletic as demonstrated by the perfect form of the Riace Warriors. The Warriors are the perfect representation of the human body. Their muscles are well rendered, toned and powerful and their beards and hair are neat. The perfection which exists from their arms, to their buttocks to their legs is the defining image of an athlete. They strive for perfection and by representing two men as such, these sculptures are the definition of athletic. Moreover, they can be admired from any angle and they are still immaculate. An athlete should be an all rounder. They train every part of their body to eliminate any small weakness. This is true of the Riace Warriors and they therefore are the pinnacle of athleticism.

The statues of the 5th century BC represent a new age of sculpture, with new forms and subjects being explored by the great sculptors of the time. However to achieve athleticism, history, lifelikeness and aspiration, they must combine different elements to be successful. By only considering one aspect of sculpture, and neglecting others, the sculpture seems slightly imperfect. However, when the sculptor is able to find the correct mixture of action, composition, detail, expressions, emotions and proportions, they can achieve any desired effect with their creation.